Unit 3: Cultural Conflicts In Wisconsin
by
Dr. Ava L. McCall and Thelma Ristow
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European American-Native American Conflicts |
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This unit will focus on the cultural conflicts among the six federally recognized Native American tribes located in Wisconsin: the Oneida, Anishinabe-Ojibwa, Menominee, Potawatomi, Menominee, and the Ho-Chunk and European Americans from the early 1800s to the present. The unit will include the main themes which illustrate cultural conflicts including treaties and treaty rights; removal to reservations; allotment and assimilation; citizenship and reorganization; termination; and self-determination. It will also briefly focus on Wisconsin people's involvement in the cultural conflicts among African Americans and European Americans regarding slavery or the right of a human being to be owned by another.
This unit seeks to correct the Eurocentric bias of many accounts of Wisconsin history by including Native American perspectives on Indian-European American relationships during the past two centuries. Too often, the presence of Native Americans in Wisconsin has been viewed as a hindrance to progress rather than a struggle of cultures to co-exist in the state. It is important that students learn more about the cultural conflicts between the first people of Wisconsin and European Americans in order to develop greater sensitivity to people from different cultures as well as an awareness of national policies designed to extinguish certain cultures. Just as people from Wisconsin have resisted slavery in the past, a practice of inhumane treatment of African Americans, so can we resist unjust treatment of Native Americans.
1. Students will develop greater knowledge of and sensitivity to the cultural conflicts among European Americans and the Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Potawatomi in Wisconsin regarding treaties and treaty rights; removal to reservations; allotment and assimilation; citizenship and reorganization; termination; and self-determination from the early 1800s to the present.
2. Students will appreciate the efforts of native people to maintain their culture despite immense pressures to assimilate into European American culture.
3. Students will develop literacy skills through reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
4. Students will develop critical literacy by analyzing resources for inclusion of diverse groups as well as different perspectives and assumptions.
5. Students will develop their ability to express ideas through drawings.
6. Students will develop cooperative learning skills by working with others.
National Social Studies Thematic Strands
This unit will include the cultural thematic strand by focusing on different ways European Americans and Native Americans view and deal with their physical environment and social conditions. This theme is significant because it provides opportunities for students to understand the cultural differences which were the basis for cultural conflicts among these groups. Through understanding these differences, perhaps students can develop more constructive ways of dealing with conflicts resulting from differences.
This unit will incorporate the time, continuity, and change thematic strand by illustrating how native people and European Americans viewed themselves and each other over time. This theme is especially significant since national policies regarding Native Americans fluctuated as did the tribes' abilities to survive during the early 1800s to the present. This theme will allow students to understand how the relationships among European Americans and Native Americans and the strength of the tribes changed over time. Students can then begin appreciating the complexity of the relationships between Wisconsin tribes and European Americans.
This unit will address the power, authority, and governance thematic strand by including the different ways the federal government dealt with Native American nations from the early 1800s until the present and whose interests the federal government represented. By analyzing national policies and the effects on the Wisconsin tribes in terms of whose power is supported and whose interests are furthered, students may become more sensitive to power differences and the fair use of power.
This unit will address the civil ideals and practices thematic strand by incorporating ways the democratic ideals of individual human dignity, liberty, justice, and equality were part of cultural conflicts among Native Americans and Europeans as well as African Americans and European Americans. By analyzing the federal policies regarding Native Americans and the practice of slavery in terms of furthering the democratic ideals, students can develop a better understanding of actions which fit our civic ideals. Students will then be able to think about ways they can participate in furthering these ideals in current relationships with native people and African Americans.
School District Social Studies Curriculum Objectives
2. 2e Students will compare characteristics of places used for farming and forestry by Wisconsin Indians with those used by European and European American immigrants and the resulting conflicts from these differences.
3. 1a Students will define resources valued by Wisconsin Native Americans and those valued by European and European American immigrants and the resulting conflicts over these resources.
3. 1b Students will show an understanding of the concept of environment as the physical surroundings of Wisconsin Native Americans and European and European American immigrants.
3. 1d Students will list ways Wisconsin tribes and European and European American immigrants depended on the natural environment.
3. 2k Students will explain changes in farming practices for certain Indian tribes (Stockbridge-Munsee and Oneida) in Wisconsin as a result of the Allotment Act.
3. 2l Students will evaluate the Wisconsin tribes' perspective on the use of land and the European and European American perspective on the use of land.
4. 3a Students will analyze U.S. and Wisconsin maps to locate patterns of movement for Wisconsin Native Americans from the early 1800s to the present due to cultural conflicts with European Americans.
4. 3b Students will trace patterns of movement for the six Wisconsin tribes due to growth in the European American population.
5. 2b Students will describe characteristics of Indian regions in Wisconsin at different times from the early 1800s to the present.
5. 2c Students will locate Wisconsin Native American reservations and communities as human regions of Wisconsin.
5. 2j Students will list the economic activities of Wisconsin Native American regions.
6. 1 Students will explain why Wisconsin Indians formed tribal governments.
6. 2 Students will distinguish between the roles of the national and state government in dealing with Wisconsin tribes.
6. 3 Students will identify ways in which Wisconsin Native Americans in the past and present have tried to keep their history and culture alive despite pressures to become assimilated into European American culture.
6. 4 Students will explain how the language and customs of Wisconsin tribes unite them and create conflicts with European American culture.
6. 5 Students will explain ways Wisconsin Indians and European American and European immigrants in Wisconsin influenced each other.
9. 1 Students will describe the influence of new European and European American immigrants into Wisconsin on the native people already living there.
9. 3 Students will explain changes and conflicts between European Americans and Wisconsin Native Americans regarding hunting and farming.
14. 2 Students will identify areas of Wisconsin where the first Indians lived, then where they were forced to move to reservations or communities.
14. 4 Students will explain how the lives of Wisconsin Native Americans changed after European American immigrants moved into Wisconsin.
14. 9 Students will explain Wisconsin's involvement in cultural conflicts over slavery by participating in the Underground Railroad.
14. 16 Students will describe the political divisions of Indian reservations in Wisconsin.
School District Literacy Curriculum Objectives
Reading Band E
Reading Strategies
Students will use a dictionary to gain information when reading.
Students will use the index, table of contents, and glossary to gain information when reading expository text.
Students will use a variety of word analysis strategies to decode words.
Students will use a variety of comprehension strategies to gain meaning from more complex text.
Reading Responses
Students will improvise in role play.
Students will prepare written responses to show meaning inferred from text.
Students will demonstrate understanding of a piece of literature.
Students will express and support an opinion on the author's purpose.
Students will analyze text to show understanding of character traits and actions.
Students will evaluate the behavior of characters from different cultural perspectives.
Students will paraphrase informational/expository text.
Students will read orally with expression.
Interest and Attitudes
Students will choose books of personal interest related to the curriculum unit.
Students will participate in SSR.
Students will independently choose books appropriate to their reading level.
Students will demonstrate effective listening and speaking habits.
Writing Band E
Writing Mechanics
Students will construct more complex sentences.
Students will write passages with clear meaning, accuracy of spelling, and appropriate punctuation and grammar.
Students will use a dictionary and/or thesaurus to check and extend vocabulary for writing.
Students will write statements, questions, commands, and exclamations.
Students will consistently use legible handwriting.
Students will use the editing mechanics of spelling, indentation, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization.
Writing Strategies
Students will link paragraphs into a cohesive structure.
Students will write for different purposes.
Students will write from different perspectives.
Students will use the writing process to prepare for publication.
Students will incorporate feedback from adults and peers through revising and editing.
Writing Responses
Students will write a summary of expository texts including the main topic, main ideas, and supporting details.
Students will respond to text through logs or journals.
This unit will include some of the experiences and perspectives of the Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Potawatomi of Wisconsin regarding treaties and treaty rights; removal to reservations; allotment and assimilation; citizenship and reorganization; termination; and self-determination. It will address the racism inherent in federal policies related to Wisconsin tribes and encourage students to participate in the interruption of this racism through supporting policies which respect the rights of native people. The unit will integrate critical thinking skills and the analysis of diverse viewpoints.
Cultural Conflicts In Wisconsin: Background Knowledge
People in Wisconsin took actions to support the abolishment of slavery. They did not believe in the right of European Americans to own African Americans for life. Wisconsin's Supreme Court declared the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 null and void within state lines since it enabled slave owners to travel into free states like Wisconsin to capture runaway slaves. An example of the state's action on this law was seen in the case of Joshua Glover, an escaped African American slave who was working in a Racine mill. Glover's owner, B. S. Garland, traveled to Milwaukee and applied for a warrant to capture and return Glover to Missouri. Garland took federal marshals with him to have Glover arrested, beaten, and taken to the Milwaukee County Jail. Sherman Booth, Milwaukee newspaper editor, encouraged citizens to free Glover. A mob stormed the jail and smuggled Glover to freedom in Canada and Booth was arrested and eventually pardoned in 1861. This incident stirred the antislavery sentiment in the state and became the most famous anti-slavery incident in Wisconsin.
Wisconsin's immigrants were empathetic toward slaves in the South in the period prior to and during the Civil War. People in Wisconsin helped escaping slaves by developing the last stations as slaves traveled to Canada along the Underground Railroad. Some fugitive slaves took the Fox and Rock Rivers from Illinois to Wisconsin and beyond. Lake Geneva and Winnebago served as landmarks along the trail. Others traveled along the Mississippi River along the western boundary of the state. Many fugitive slaves were helped by sympathetic captains of sailing vessels on Lake Michigan and ports on the eastern border of Wisconsin. Many escaping slaves traveled north through Wisconsin on foot under cover of darkness aided by abolitionists operating stations on the Underground Railroad. The first passenger to travel the Underground Railroad in Wisconsin was Carolyn Quarelles.
Several homes in Kenosha were part of the Underground Railroad including the Qualis barn, the Deming attic, the Smith barn, and the Bullen music room. Racine's participation in this movement included the Racine Grain Warehouse, located where the Root River enters Lake Michigan, which served as another station on the Underground Railroad. The Janesville community was also important in the Underground Railroad with the Tallman House containing hiding places in the basement and attic and a special lookout spot on the roof. The Milton House owner built a tunnel under the stage coach inn and hotel which was used to hide escaping slaves and connected the inn to the Pioneer Cabin behind. In the Beloit area, the Carpenter Mansion (now the Steelworkers' Union Hall) was one of three stations on the Underground Railroad in Beloit.
There were also incidents of cultural conflicts among African Americans and European Americans in Wisconsin. Despite the movement of a number of African Americans in the state in the 1800s, people in Wisconsin voted down suffrage for African Americans in 1847 and petitioned for a prohibition against further African American immigration to Wisconsin in 1863. There were also incidents of conflicts between Irish workers and African Americans.
Conflicts Among European Americans And Native Americans
What were the significant treaties and treaty rights issues for the tribe?
At first the U.S. government did not consider Indian people to be citizens. The government had developed federal policies related to native people based on a system of treaty-making. At the beginning of the 1800s, the treaties recognized the tribes as foreign and independent sovereign nations. The treaties usually transferred land from tribal control to the U.S. government and promised some land to be specifically reserved for the tribe's use. Treaties identified tribal boundaries and gradually diminished Indian lands, although tribes retained certain rights. By 1830, Indian nations were recognized as domestic, dependent nations. The treaties gradually reduced land holdings to a reservation which was much smaller than the original lands. The treaties also opened up land to European American settlers while limiting Indian claims.
Later interpretations of treaties generally follow these principles: ambiguous expressions in treaties must be decided in favor of native people; treaties must be interpreted as the Indians would have understood them; and treaties must be liberally construed in favor of Indians. The Supreme Court recognized that Indian nations were at a disadvantage when treaties were signed because of the unfair conditions, language misunderstandings, and cultural differences. These disadvantages, according to the Supreme Court, should allow for giving Indian nations the benefit of the doubt regarding treaties.
Through several treaties between 1829 and 1837, the large tract of land inhabited by the Ho-Chunk was eventually ceded or signed over to the U.S. government. When the Ho-Chunk signed a treaty in 1837, the treaty was misinterpreted to the Ho-Chunk. They did not understand that the treaty was forcing them to move to a reservation in Iowa. Some Ho-Chunk moved and some did not. Later treaties were signed to move Ho-Chunk to several reservation sites in Minnesota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. When military force was used to move the Ho-Chunk in boxcars and cattle railroad cars in 1874 to Nebraska, many Ho-Chunk died, but not all left Wisconsin. When the government realized they would never move all the Ho-Chunk from Wisconsin, the government allotted each family a 40-acre plot of land for farming. Many of these plots of land were in swampy areas and difficult to farm.
How did removal to reservations affect the tribe?
The individual plots of land were not a reservation at the time and the Ho-Chunk continue to not have reservation lands. The Ho-Chunk have been viewed as homesteaders in Wisconsin. They have title today to just over six square miles in 10 different counties in the center of the state. Tribal members struggled to survive economically during this period by selling wild blueberries, furs, and baskets, and harvesting others' crops. However, the Ho-Chunk held onto cultural traditions and many tribal members still speak their native language.
How did allotment and assimilation affect the tribe?
The allotment policy did not pertain to the Ho-Chunk because they have not had reservation lands. Boarding schools provided a significant avenue of assimilating the Ho-Chunk into European American culture. Children were to learn to live in majority society. Children were hauled off to distant boarding schools first established in the late 1870s by the Bureau of Indian Affairs where they wore military-style uniforms and learned trades and household skills, but only the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They were punished severely if caught speaking their native languages. The main goal of these schools was to teach students to become "civilized." Eventually, enough boarding schools were built so that children were not sent far from home. Religious denominations also built Indian boarding schools both on and away from reservations with several still operating into the 20th century.
What issues did the tribe face with citizenship and reorganization?
Citizenship was granted to all Native Americans in 1924. Native Americans who are enrolled members of their tribes are now citizens of the United States, their tribal nation, their state, their county, and their local city or town. The Ho-Chunk tribe did not set up a constitution under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, but developed a constitution and became a federally recognized tribe in 1963.
How is self-determination important for the tribe?
"Indian self-determination" is a current political movement for Indian sovereignty which began in the early 1960s. In 1961 native people from 90 different tribes decided they wanted more decisions made by tribal governments and for tribal governments rather than the federal government to run their own programs for their people. Because the education of Native American children and youth was unsuccessful in European American schools with high dropout rates and low educational levels, native people drew on federal funds to develop preschool, public school, and alternative school programs for Indian children. The self-determination movement has focused on preserving tribal heritage, strengthening Indian families, and allowing tribes and urban Indian communities to determine their own destiny.
The Ho-Chunk are concerned with keeping their culture alive. They have organized the Ho-Chunk Research Center, designed to collect, preserve, and interpret photographs and documents that relate to the cultural history of the tribe. They have established programs to teach the Ho-Chunk language and culture in different communities where Ho-Chunk people live. The Ho-Chunk continue traditional dances at the Stand Rock Indian Ceremonial during the summer. Many continue to practice many of their traditional Ho-Chunk language, customs, and traditions. Their economic viability has been supported by gaming.
What were the significant treaties and treaty rights issues for the tribe?
At first the U.S. government did not consider Indian people to be citizens. The government had developed federal policies related to native people based on a system of treaty-making. At the beginning of the 1800s, the treaties recognized the tribes as foreign and independent sovereign nations. The treaties usually transferred land from tribal control to the U.S. government and promised some land to be specifically reserved for the tribe's use. Treaties identified tribal boundaries and gradually diminished Indian lands, although tribes retained certain rights. By 1830, Indian nations were recognized as domestic, dependent nations. The treaties gradually reduced landholdings to a reservation which was much smaller than the original lands. The treaties also opened up land to European American settlers while limiting Indian claims.
Later interpretations of treaties generally follow these principles: ambiguous expressions in treaties must be decided in favor of native people; treaties must be interpreted as the Indians would have understood them; and treaties must be liberally construed in favor of Indians. The Supreme Court recognized that Indian nations were at a disadvantage when treaties were signed because of the unfair conditions, language misunderstandings, and cultural differences. These disadvantages, according to the Supreme Court, should allow for giving Indian nations the benefit of the doubt regarding treaties.
The Menominee signed their first treaty with the U.S. government in 1817. This was the first of many through which the Menominee people would see their lands disappear for prices between three to fifteen cents an acre. By 1848, the Menominee had sold or lost about 9,500,000 acres of land. The U.S. government decided the Menominee should move to Minnesota, but the Menominee argued with the federal government for six years about this decision. The Menominee wanted to remain on their homeland. In 1854 the U.S. government gave the Menominee a reservation on a small piece of land along the Wolf River by Keshena Falls. The Menominee ended up with approximately 275,000 acres, but then ceded a small part of this land to the Stockbridge-Munsee tribe.
How did removal to reservations affect the tribe?
Because the Menominee reservation did not contain wild rice beds, the Menominee people have lost their wild ricing tradition. The U.S. government controlled all life on the reservation. The people were told how to dress, what religion to practice, what kind of farming to do, and where the children should attend school. A sawmill was built on the reservation as part of the payment for lands that the Menominee ceded to the government. The Menominee began cutting and selling timber to make money for the tribe. However, "Timber Barons" were also interested in the timber here and the Menominee had to be on guard against efforts from these barons to cut timber on Menominee land. The Menominee's lumber business did so well that they could pay for their own community services through the lumber they sold in the U.S. and to other countries.
How did allotment and assimilation affect the tribe?
Overall, treaties, removal to reservations, the General Allotment Act, and efforts to assimilate native people into European American culture could be considered a national policy of genocide because the ultimate goal was to eliminate the distinct cultures of Native Americans.
The Allotment Act did not pertain to Menominee lands. However, the Menominee were also subjected to pressures to assimilate into European American culture as all native people were. Children were hauled off to distant boarding schools first established in the late 1870s by the Bureau of Indian Affairs where they wore military-style uniforms and learned trades and household skills, but only the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They were punished severely if caught speaking their native languages. The main goal of these schools was to teach students to become "civilized." Eventually, enough boarding schools were built so that children were not sent far from home. Religious denominations also built Indian boarding schools both on and away from reservations with several still operating into the 20th century.
What issues did the tribe face with citizenship and reorganization?
Citizenship was granted to all Native Americans in 1924. Native Americans who are enrolled members of their tribes are now citizens of the United States, their tribal nation, their state, their county, and their local city or town. The Menominee tribe did not set up a constitution under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, so was not influenced by this act.
What were the effects of the federal termination policy on the Menominee?
When the Menominee did so well economically with the lumber business, they were one of the tribes targeted for termination because the federal government believed the Menominee could stand on their own and make enough money to support themselves and pay state and county taxes. When the Menominee Termination Act was passed in 1954, the Menominee reservation ceased to exist. The land became Menominee County; no land belonged to the tribe. However, the amount of money needed to pay state and county taxes could not be generated by the Menominee Enterprises. The tribe began selling their land holdings to wealthy European American real estate developers to pay the government taxes. Businesses began to close. They were on their way to losing everything. The tribe did not have enough money for a school, so Menominee children continued to attend school off the reservation. Each Menominee family was on its own rather than working together for the tribe. After concerned Menominee people organized and protested termination bringing public attention to this issue, the Menominee Restoration Act was signed in 1973. This act returned the lands to reservation status.
How is self-determination important for the tribe?
"Indian self-determination" is a current political movement for Indian sovereignty which began in the early 1960s. In 1961 native people from 90 different tribes decided they wanted more decisions made by tribal governments and for tribal governments rather than the federal government to run their own programs for their people. Because the education of Native American children and youth was unsuccessful in European American schools with high dropout rates and low educational levels, native people drew on federal funds to develop preschool, public school, and alternative school programs for Indian children. The self-determination movement has focused on preserving tribal heritage, strengthening Indian families, and allowing tribes and urban Indian communities to determine their own destiny.
The Menominee have worked hard to make their reservation a good place to live. The 233,000 acres of reservation land are covered with 130 lakes, numerous streams, and forests. The sawmill in Neopit is run by the tribe and employs many Menominee. They use sustained yield forestry management practices which mean that the trees are not cut down at once, but little by little to maintain all species of trees for the future and to ensure continual economic gain for the tribe. Gaming has become another source of income, but less so than the lumber industry. Schooling and good education are important to the tribe. The Menominee have built tribal schools and include Menominee history and culture in the schools' curriculum.
What were the significant treaties and treaty rights issues for the tribe?
At first the U.S. government did not consider Indian people to be citizens. The government had developed federal policies related to native people based on a system of treaty-making. At the beginning of the 1800s, the treaties recognized the tribes as foreign and independent sovereign nations. The treaties usually transferred land from tribal control to the U.S. government and promised some land to be specifically reserved for the tribe's use. Treaties identified tribal boundaries and gradually diminished Indian lands, although tribes retained certain rights. By 1830, Indian nations were recognized as domestic, dependent nations. The treaties gradually reduced landholdings to a reservation which was much smaller than the original lands. The treaties also opened up land to European American settlers while limiting Indian claims.
Later interpretations of treaties generally follow these principles: ambiguous expressions in treaties must be decided in favor of native people; treaties must be interpreted as the Indians would have understood them; and treaties must be liberally construed in favor of Indians. The Supreme Court recognized that Indian nations were at a disadvantage when treaties were signed because of the unfair conditions, language misunderstandings, and cultural differences. These disadvantages, according to the Supreme Court, should allow for giving Indian nations the benefit of the doubt regarding treaties.
To avoid moving west of the Mississippi River and giving up their lands after the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Ojibwa negotiated with the federal government for lands they wanted to live on. At the Treaty of 1854, the Ojibwa people were assigned two reservations in Michigan, two in Minnesota, and five in Wisconsin; the Bad River, the Lac Courte Oreilles, the Lac du Flambeau, the Red Cliff, and the Mole Lake. The Ojibwa were not to be removed from these reservations and retained the rights to fish and hunt "as long as the rivers will flow and the grass will grow." The St. Croix Ojibwa did not attend the 1854 treaty meeting and did not receive any land allotment or reservation area at that time. The Ojibwa were forced to cede large amounts of their land.
Court decisions, specifically the 1983 Voigt decision, have confirmed certain fishing and hunting rights reserved under specific treaties. Non-Indian groups have organized in opposition to the Ojibwa and against treaty rights. Protests at boat landings when Ojibwa exercised their right to fish on the ceded lands became violent during the 1980s.
How did removal to reservations affect the tribe?
By 1890 almost every tribe in the U.S. had been assigned to a reservation. All tribes were under the direct control of the federal government and native people had no choice in deciding where and how they should live. There was much resistance from Native Americans to the reservation policy, but this was quickly squelched. The Indian agent was considered superior and totally controlled native people's lives on reservations. Subsistence on reservations was extremely difficult. The Indian agent had total control over any incoming goods. Food and clothing were scarce and supplies were of poor quality. Often the standard of living declined because tribal members could not meet their basic needs in traditional ways on the limited lands. The reservation era led to a decline in hope and self-esteem and the creation of a culture of poverty.
How did allotment and assimilation affect the tribe?
Overall, treaties, removal to reservations, the General Allotment Act, and efforts to assimilate native people into European American culture could be considered a national policy of genocide because the ultimate goal was to eliminate the distinct cultures of Native Americans.
At the time of forcing native people onto reservations, other policies aimed at assimilating the tribes into European American culture were begun. Churches were given free reign to convert the Indians, and government boarding schools were established in several locations in the U.S. Children were forcibly removed from their families and sent away to be "enculturated." Native children's hair was cut, religious ceremonies were forbidden, traditional music and dances were prohibited, and those caught speaking their native language were severely punished. Sometimes older students would run away from these schools and return home, but eventually they were sent far enough away that returning home was impossible. Native American children attended boarding schools in Kansas, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Pennsylvania. When the children returned to their reservations, they had lost their Indian identities. They could not speak the language, did not honor Mother Earth, did not remember the songs, stories, and legends which told of the tribal history.
The Allotment Act of 1887 which divided reservation lands into parcels for each family head or single person and aimed at making native people into farmers affected the Ojibwa. However, the intent of the law was to encourage native people to adopt the European American style of farming. The northern location of the Ojibwa reservations made the Ojibwa poor prospects for farming. Commercial fishing was a more feasible source of support. When Ojibwa lands were reduced through allotment, European Americans were interested in obtaining lands for lumbering and resort development.
What issues did the tribe face with citizenship and reorganization?
Citizenship was granted to all Native Americans in 1924. Native Americans who are enrolled members of their tribes are now citizens of the United States, their tribal nation, their state, their county, and their local city or town.
The Ojibwa set up constitutions under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. Under this act, the Mole Lake and St. Croix Ojibwa received reservation lands.
How is self-determination important for the tribe?
"Indian self-determination" is a current political movement for Indian sovereignty which began in the early 1960s. In 1961 native people from 90 different tribes decided they wanted more decisions made by tribal governments and for tribal governments rather than the federal government to run their own programs for their people. Because the education of Native American children and youth was unsuccessful in European American schools with high dropout rates and low educational levels, native people drew on federal funds to develop preschool, public school, and alternative school programs for Indian children. The self-determination movement has focused on preserving tribal heritage, strengthening Indian families, and allowing tribes and urban Indian communities to determine their own destiny.
The Ojibwa today are concerned about providing a good education for their children while teaching the young about Ojibwa history and culture. Some of the bands have developed tribal schools to teach the culture and history of the Ojibwa. Two of the bands have developed museums to teach interested people about Ojibwa history and culture. Economic development has also been a concern and the gaming enterprises have helped to provide needed income. Some of the other economic activities of the bands include fish hatcheries, lumber mill, and a wholesale fish market.
What were the significant treaties and treaty rights issues for the tribe?
At first the U.S. government did not consider Indian people to be citizens. The government had developed federal policies related to native people based on a system of treaty-making. At the beginning of the 1800s, the treaties recognized the tribes as foreign and independent sovereign nations. The treaties usually transferred land from tribal control to the U.S. government and promised some land to be specifically reserved for the tribe's use. Treaties identified tribal boundaries and gradually diminished Indian lands, although tribes retained certain rights. By 1830, Indian nations were recognized as domestic, dependent nations. The treaties gradually reduced land holdings to a reservation which was much smaller than the original lands. The treaties also opened up land to European American settlers while limiting Indian claims.
Later interpretations of treaties generally follow these principles: ambiguous expressions in treaties must be decided in favor of native people; treaties must be interpreted as the Indians would have understood them; and treaties must be liberally construed in favor of Indians. The Supreme Court recognized that Indian nations were at a disadvantage when treaties were signed because of the unfair conditions, language misunderstandings, and cultural differences. These disadvantages, according to the Supreme Court, should allow for giving Indian nations the benefit of the doubt regarding treaties.
When the U.S. government tried to move all native people west of the Mississippi River during the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Potawatomi fought being taken away from their homelands. However, the chiefs could see that their tribes would be destroyed if they did not agree to move. In the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, the Potawatomi ceded all of their lands, about five million acres, to the U.S. government. The government in return promised payments, many of which were never received. In 1836 most of the Potawatomi were moved onto two reservations; one in Kansas, the other in Iowa. Some of the families refused to move and fled north into Wisconsin where a group settled in Forest County in 1894.
How did removal to reservations affect the tribe?
The U.S. government tried to force all Potawatomi onto two reservations in Kansas and Iowa. Some refused to move and hid in the woods in Wisconsin and eventually settled in Forest County. However, this land was not a reservation until the Potawatomi began asking for the payments that the government owed them because of the Treaty of Chicago in 1833 and other treaties. Most of the payment was in the form of land. The Potawatomi used their promised payments to buy their own reservation. The land the Potawatomi purchased was scattered so the people could not live together as a tribe. They were not allowed to make their own laws and had no way of making money so the tribe could buy more land.
How did allotment and assimilation affect the tribe?
Overall, treaties, removal to reservations, the General Allotment Act, and efforts to assimilate native people into European American culture could be considered a national policy of genocide because the ultimate goal was to eliminate the distinct cultures of Native Americans.
Since the Potawatomi did not have reservation lands given to them by the U.S. government, they were not affected by the Allotment Act. However, they were subjected to pressures to assimilate into European American culture as all native people were. Children were hauled off to distant boarding schools first established in the late 1870s by the Bureau of Indian Affairs where they wore military-style uniforms and learned trades and household skills, but only the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They were punished severely if caught speaking their native languages. The main goal of these schools was to teach students to become "civilized." Eventually, enough boarding schools were built so that children were not sent far from home. Religious denominations also built Indian boarding schools both on and away from reservations with several still operating into the 20th century.
What issues did the tribe face with citizenship and reorganization?
Citizenship was granted to all Native Americans in 1924. Native Americans who are enrolled members of their tribes are now citizens of the United States, their tribal nation, their state, their county, and their local city or town. After the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Potawatomi elected their own government to make decisions. Now a tribal council makes laws for the tribe.
A criticism of the Indian Reorganization Act was that it imposed the European American form of government on native people. European Americans believed majority rule, representative bodies, and secret ballots were characteristics of good government. In many tribes, people used a consensus decision-making process in which important discussion took place in many groups until everyone agreed to a plan or compromise. It was also customary to have any interested tribal member take part in decision making rather than having representative bodies do most of the work. Voting might have been done openly or through secret ballot. These traditional, democratic forms of government among native people were ignored by the federal government.
How is self-determination important for the tribe?
"Indian self-determination" is a current political movement for Indian sovereignty which began in the early 1960s. In 1961 native people from 90 different tribes decided they wanted more decisions made by tribal governments and for tribal governments rather than the federal government to run their own programs for their people. Because the education of Native American children and youth was unsuccessful in European American schools with high dropout rates and low educational levels, native people drew on federal funds to develop preschool, public school, and alternative school programs for Indian children. The self-determination movement has focused on preserving tribal heritage, strengthening Indian families, and allowing tribes and urban Indian communities to determine their own destiny.
While the federal government has at times limited the power of Native American tribes to exercise their sovereignty, tribes have also retained most of the rights of sovereign nations. Tribes have the power to determine the form of government; define citizenship; administer justice and enforce laws; regulate economic activities; control and regulate use of tribal lands; provide social services; and engage in relationships with other governments. Tribes have a higher status than the state of Wisconsin. The state of Wisconsin must have Congressional approval to control the tribes.
Today the Potawatomi live in two communities in Forest County, Wabeno and Lake Lucerne, covering about 11,000 acres. The Potawatomi have purchased and own the land they are living on. This land is not a reservation like other tribes were forced to live on by the government because the land was purchased by the Potawatomi themselves. The two communities operate as one tribe. The tribal council is made up of members from both communities.
During the early 1900s the Forest County Potawatomi depended on gardening and hunting for food. Lumbering and tourism have been sources of income, but these have declined. Most jobs today are in tribal government. These include providing social services for tribal members and gaming.
Many Forest County Potawatomi have kept their traditions alive through practicing their original religion and speaking Potawatomi language. Elders continue to instruct younger tribal members in tribal history, language, and religious beliefs. Education is a concern today. Many Potawatomi drop out of the local public schools, and many are sent to government schools in Utah or South Dakota which teach Indian culture and encourage students to be proud of their heritage.
What were the significant treaties and treaty rights issues for the tribe?
At first the U.S. government did not consider Indian people to be citizens. The government had developed federal policies related to native people based on a system of treaty-making. At the beginning of the 1800s, the treaties recognized the tribes as foreign and independent sovereign nations. The treaties usually transferred land from tribal control to the U.S. government and promised some land to be specifically reserved for the tribe's use. Treaties identified tribal boundaries and gradually diminished Indian lands, although tribes retained certain rights. By 1830, Indian nations were recognized as domestic, dependent nations. The treaties gradually reduced land holdings to a reservation which was much smaller than the original lands. The treaties also opened up land to European American settlers while limiting Indian claims.
Later interpretations of treaties generally follow these principles: ambiguous expressions in treaties must be decided in favor of native people; treaties must be interpreted as the Indians would have understood them; and treaties must be liberally construed in favor of Indians. The Supreme Court recognized that Indian nations were at a disadvantage when treaties were signed because of the unfair conditions, language misunderstandings, and cultural differences. These disadvantages, according to the Supreme Court, should allow for giving Indian nations the benefit of the doubt regarding treaties.
The federal government reinstated Oneida ownership of their New York lands through the Treaty of Stanwix in 1784. Then, the state of New York attempted to repurchase the land the federal government had just returned to the Oneidas. Between 1784-1846, many treaties were signed. The land began to fall into the hands of the New York land commissioners. The Oneidas were paid cash for some of their land and promised future payments for the remainder. These circumstances led to a group of Oneida relocating in Wisconsin, which was occurring at the same time as the federal government was trying to remove tribes from Wisconsin further west. The Oneida began negotiating for some land near Green Bay. They were finally able to buy an area of four million acres along the Fox River now known as the city of Oneida. During the years between 1837-1887 the Oneida land was once again sold. The lumber companies were gradually buying or taking the timber rights from the Oneidas.
How did removal to reservations affect the tribe?
The movement of the Oneida to Wisconsin was somewhat precipitated by the Indian Removal Act of 1830 which forced native people from the east coast to move west of the Mississippi River. Although the Oneida did not move that far west, some tribes in Wisconsin did move west.
How did allotment and assimilation affect the tribe?
Overall, treaties, removal to reservations, the General Allotment Act, and efforts to assimilate native people into European American culture could be considered a national policy of genocide because the ultimate goal was to eliminate the distinct cultures of Native Americans.
The Allotment Act of 1887 led to the loss of much tribally-held land. The act allowed people who wanted the land to deal with individual Oneidas rather than the entire tribe. The Oneida were also subjected to pressures to assimilate into European American culture as all native people were. Children were hauled off to distant boarding schools first established in the late 1870s by the Bureau of Indian Affairs where they wore military-style uniforms and learned trades and household skills, but only the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They were punished severely if caught speaking their native languages. The main goal of these schools was to teach students to become "civilized." Eventually, enough boarding schools were built so that children were not sent far from home. Religious denominations also built Indian boarding schools both on and away from reservations with several still operating into the 20th century.
What issues did the tribe face with citizenship and reorganization?
Citizenship was granted to all Native Americans in 1924. Native Americans who are enrolled members of their tribes are now citizens of the United States, their tribal nation, their state, their county, and their local city or town. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was passed to help Native American tribes. This law allowed Indian tribes to borrow money from the government and begin reorganizing their tribes. The Oneidas took advantage of this act and began buying land and organizing a reservation for their people to live on.
A criticism of the Indian Reorganization Act was that it imposed the European American form of government on native people. European Americans believed majority rule, representative bodies, and secret ballots were characteristics of good government. In many tribes, people used a consensus decision-making process in which important discussion took place in many groups until everyone agreed to a plan or compromise. It was also customary to have any interested tribal member take part in decision making rather than having representative bodies do most of the work. Voting might have been done openly or through secret ballot. These traditional, democratic forms of government among native people were ignored by the federal government.
How is self-determination important for the tribe?
"Indian self-determination" is a current political movement for Indian sovereignty which began in the early 1960s. In 1961 native people from 90 different tribes decided they wanted more decisions made by tribal governments and for tribal governments rather than the federal government to run their own programs for their people. Because the education of Native American children and youth was unsuccessful in European American schools with high dropout rates and low educational levels, native people drew on federal funds to develop preschool, public school, and alternative school programs for Indian children. The self-determination movement has focused on preserving tribal heritage, strengthening Indian families, and allowing tribes and urban Indian communities to determine their own destiny.
Today the Oneida tribe does not own all of the land on their reservation, but the people are working toward purchasing it. The Oneidas have their own school which teaches Oneida language and culture, thus maintaining Oneida culture. Many social services have been created to help Oneida people, including a health care center, day care, and a community center. The Oneida Nation Museum also helps teach the history and culture of the Oneida Nation for anyone who wants to visit. Gaming has supported the development of many social services and helped the tribe to prosper economically. The goal is for every Oneida to become a self-sufficient, proud member of the community.
What were the significant treaties and treaty rights issues for the tribe?
At first the U.S. government did not consider Indian people to be citizens. The government had developed federal policies related to native people based on a system of treaty-making. At the beginning of the 1800s, the treaties recognized the tribes as foreign and independent sovereign nations. The treaties usually transferred land from tribal control to the U.S. government and promised some land to be specifically reserved for the tribe's use. Treaties identified tribal boundaries and gradually diminished Indian lands, although tribes retained certain rights. By 1830, Indian nations were recognized as domestic, dependent nations. The treaties gradually reduced land holdings to a reservation which was much smaller than the original lands. The treaties also opened up land to European American settlers while limiting Indian claims.
Later interpretations of treaties generally follow these principles: ambiguous expressions in treaties must be decided in favor of native people; treaties must be interpreted as the Indians would have understood them; and treaties must be liberally construed in favor of Indians. The Supreme Court recognized that Indian nations were at a disadvantage when treaties were signed because of the unfair conditions, language misunderstandings, and cultural differences. These disadvantages, according to the Supreme Court, should allow for giving Indian nations the benefit of the doubt regarding treaties.
When the Stockbridge-Munsee first moved to Wisconsin, they settled in the area now known as Kaukauna. Some claimed they did not own this land, so the Stockbridge-Munsee moved to Calumet County east of Lake Winnebago. After the 1830 Indian Removal Act, many Stockbridge wanted to move west to get away from European Americans in Wisconsin. Some left for the Missouri River, Kansas, or Oklahoma. Many died en route and some returned to Wisconsin. John Quinney led the Stockbridge in retaining land in Wisconsin. In 1856, the Stockbridge-Munsee were granted a piece of land from east of Lake Winnebago to Red Spring in Shawano County.
How did removal to reservations affect the tribe?
By 1890 almost every Indian tribe in the U.S. had been assigned to a reservation. Life on the reservation was totally controlled by the U.S. government through an Indian agent. Incoming goods were often of very poor quality, and food was scarce. This was an era of declining self-esteem and poverty which continues today.
The Stockbridge-Munsee reservation land was sandy and swampy, covered with a pine forest. Farming was unsuccessfully tried. Forestry became the economic backbone for the tribe.
How did allotment and assimilation affect the tribe?
Overall, treaties, removal to reservations, the General Allotment Act, and efforts to assimilate native people into European American culture could be considered a national policy of genocide because the ultimate goal was to eliminate the distinct cultures of Native Americans.
The General Allotment Act meant that some of the reservation land was no longer going to be owned by the tribe. It imposed the European American concept of individual ownership on the native people's practice of collective use of land. Land was then divided and owned by individual people. Individuals began selling their land to business dealers who wanted to use the land for lumbering. The tribe began to see their reservation land disappear. More and more land was lost. Lumber companies took the lumber they wanted, then moved out of the area, leaving behind few trees. The Stockbridge-Munsee were unable to make money and pay taxes.
Over time, the Stockbridge-Munsee have lost much of their Indian culture. Traditional Indian dress, the original language, and traditional basket-making and silver smithing crafts were nearly lost in the late 1800s. For those children and youth attending Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools and mission schools, students were punished for speaking their languages or participating in their cultures. The main goal of these schools was to teach students to become "civilized." Children now living on the reservation no longer go to their own school, which closed in 1952. They must travel to Bowler or Gresham to attend school.
What issues did the tribe face with citizenship and reorganization?
Under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the Stockbridge-Munsee obtained money from the government to strengthen their tribe and govern themselves again. The tribe developed their own constitution and bylaws. The U.S. government then granted 2,250 acres of land to them in Bartelme Township near Bowler. The Stockbridge-Munsee were given back a portion of their original land to begin rebuilding the tribe. New programs to build homes were begun and new timber lands planted.
The Stockbridge-Munsee tribe could now be governed by their own people. They elected their own tribal council and, through council leaders, rights were won back for the Stockbridge-Munsee. A criticism of the Indian Reorganization Act was that it imposed the European American form of government on native people. European Americans believed majority rule, representative bodies, and secret ballots were characteristics of good government. In many tribes, people used a consensus decision-making process in which important discussion took place in many groups until everyone agreed to a plan or compromise. It was also customary to have any interested tribal member take part in decision making rather than having representative bodies do most of the work. Voting might have been done openly or through secret ballot. These traditional, democratic forms of government among native people were ignored by the federal government.
Citizenship was granted to all Native Americans in 1924. Native Americans who are enrolled members of their tribes are now citizens of the United States, their tribal nation, their state, their county, and their local city or town.
How is self-determination important for the tribe?
"Indian self-determination" is a current political movement for Indian sovereignty which began in the early 1960s. In 1961 native people from 90 different tribes decided they wanted more decisions made by tribal governments and for tribal governments rather than the federal government to run their own programs for their people. Because the education of Native American children and youth was unsuccessful in European American schools with high dropout rates and low educational levels, native people drew on federal funds to develop preschool, public school, and alternative school programs for Indian children. The self-determination movement has focused on preserving tribal heritage, strengthening Indian families, and allowing tribes and urban Indian communities to determine their own destiny.
While the federal government has at times limited the power of Native American tribes to exercise their sovereignty, tribes have also retained most of the rights of sovereign nations. Tribes have the power to determine the form of government; define citizenship; administer justice and enforce laws; regulate economic activities; control and regulate use of tribal lands; provide social services; and engage in relationships with other governments. Tribes have a higher status than the state of Wisconsin. The state of Wisconsin must have Congressional approval to control the tribes.
Few good job opportunities exist on the Stockbridge-Munsee reservation, so most people travel to work in larger cities. In the early 1980s, most men on the reservation were employed in construction, logging, or government programs. Only one farm was operating. Unemployment was high and little wealth existed in the community. In the 1990s, tribal members work for the tribe in community services, recreational activities, and gaming.
However, the Stockbridge-Munsee people have survived over the years because of their persistence and determination. They finally have a place to call home and want the reservation to become a place where their people want to live. Tribal members are working to improve their lives and recognize the importance of unity to their survival.
Activities
1. Provide opportunities for students to illustrate what they know about the topic of cultural conflicts regarding slavery and the Underground Railroad prior to beginning the study in order to understand students' prior knowledge and questions they may have. Students may prepare concept maps to show what they already know about slavery and the Underground Railroad. Each concept (slavery and the Underground Railroad) would be placed in the middle of a piece of paper with students adding words or phrases which come