Unit 2: The First People Of Wisconsin
by
Dr. Ava L. McCall and Thelma Ristow
Activities |
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This unit will focus on the six federally recognized Native American tribes located now in Wisconsin: the Oneida, Anishinabe-Ojibwa, Menominee, Stockbridge-Munsee, Potawatomi, and the Winnebago or Hochungra who now prefer to be called the Ho-Chunk. The unit will include the tribes' origins, the lifestyle, values and beliefs, the first contact with Europeans, the effects of this contact on the tribes.
Students need to understand the importance of the Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Stockbridge-Munsee, Potawatomi, and Ho-Chunk cultures to the history of Wisconsin because everyone's lives have been affected by the history of the original inhabitants of the state. Unfortunately, the history of native people in Wisconsin has often been omitted or slighted in the curriculum, contributing to the lack of understanding and appreciation for the tribes. Since our society has historically perpetuated racist policies and actions directed against native people, by encouraging students to understand and appreciate the culture and history of Wisconsin tribes, we can help to interrupt this racism and foster social structural equality among native and non native people.
1. Students will develop greater knowledge of and appreciation for the origins, lifestyles, values and beliefs, first contact with Europeans and the effects of this contact for the Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Potawatomi in Wisconsin.
2. Students will value Wisconsin Native American culture and history.
3. Students will develop critical literacy by analyzing texts for inclusion of diverse groups as well as different perspectives and assumptions.
4. Students will develop literacy skills through reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
5. Students will develop cooperative learning skills by working with others.
6. Students will develop artistic skills by expressing understandings through art.
National Social Studies Thematic Strands
This unit will include the culture thematic strand by focusing on aspects of culture and cultural diversity among six Wisconsin Native American tribes. This strand is significant because it offers opportunities for students to understand and appreciate the richness and complexity of native people's cultures in Wisconsin which have historically been devalued. Through increased understanding and appreciation of the six tribes, we can move toward social structural equality for native people in Wisconsin.
This unit will incorporate the time, continuity, and change thematic strand by illustrating how Wisconsin native people's lives changed over time due to contact with Europeans and European and Native American perspectives on different groups and events. This theme is significant to illustrate the changing nature of culture and the reciprocal aspect of the influence of different cultural groups on each other, such as Native Americans and Europeans in Wisconsin. This theme is also important to depict conflicting interpretations of historical events and cultural groups based on different values, beliefs, experiences, and assumptions. By offering students opportunities to learn more about the complex nature of culture and different interpretations of groups and events, we can encourage deeper and more critical thinking regarding Wisconsin Native Americans.
This unit will address the people, places, and environment thematic strand by including ways the six Wisconsin tribes adapted to and valued their physical environment. This strand is especially important to demonstrate how the tribes lived successfully as well as respected the physical world they lived in prior to contact with Europeans. By encouraging students to understand this history, we can encourage them to value Native American cultures with environmentally sensitive lifestyles and consider developing more environmentally sensitive lifestyles themselves.
This unit will focus on the individuals, groups, and institutions thematic strand by incorporating the significance of group identity among the six Wisconsin tribes. This theme is significant because group identity was crucial to the survival of the tribes and an important part of each tribe's values and culture. By offering students opportunities to understand this theme, we encourage them to understand Wisconsin Native American cultures on a deeper level.
School District Social Studies Curriculum Objectives
1. 2c Students will use maps and globes to locate origins of Native American tribes according to different theories.
2. 1d&j Students will locate major bodies of water and river systems in Wisconsin and explain how they influenced the lifestyles of Wisconsin tribes.
2. 1f Students will describe features of climate, natural vegetation, forests, and prairie lands and their influence on the lifestyle of Wisconsin tribes.
3. 1d & 2e Students will list ways in which Native American tribes depended upon and adapted to their environment.
5. 2c & i Students will locate areas that can be classified as regions and the animal and plant life indigenous to the regions where Wisconsin tribes lived seasonal lifestyles, such as forested hunting camps, fishing camps, and maple sugar camps.
5. 2j Students will list economic activities such as trading with French fur traders which were most likely to be located in specific regions.
14. 1 Students will identify different terms acceptable for Indians or Native Americans.
14. 2 Students will identify areas of Wisconsin in which the first Indians lived.
14. 3 Students will describe some of the important historical/cultural contributions of the Wisconsin Indian tribes (Menominee, Stockbridge-Munsee, Oneida, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, and Ojibwa).
14. 4 Students will explain how the Wisconsin Indians' way of life changed after their first encounters with French fur traders.
14. 8 & 10 Students will explain the effect of the French and Indian War, Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812 on Wisconsin tribes.
School District Literacy Curriculum Objectives
Reading Band E
Reading Strategies
Students will use a dictionary to gain information when reading.
Students will use the index, table of contents, and glossary to gain information when reading expository text.
Students will use a variety of word analysis strategies to decode words.
Students will use a variety of comprehension strategies to gain meaning from more complex text.
Reading Responses
Students will improvise in role play.
Students will prepare written responses to show meaning inferred from text.
Students will demonstrate understanding of a piece of literature.
Students will express and support an opinion on the author's purpose.
Students will analyze text to show understanding of character traits and actions.
Students will evaluate the behavior of characters from different cultural perspectives.
Students will paraphrase informational/expository text.
Students will read orally with expression.
Interest and Attitudes
Students will choose books of personal interest related to the curriculum unit.
Students will participate in SSR.
Students will independently choose books appropriate to their reading level.
Students will demonstrate effective listening and speaking habits.
Writing Band E
Writing Mechanics
Students will construct more complex sentences.
Students will write passages with clear meaning, accuracy of spelling, and appropriate punctuation and grammar.
Students will use a dictionary and/or thesaurus to check and extend vocabulary for writing.
Students will write statements, questions, commands, and exclamations.
Students will consistently use legible handwriting.
Students will use the editing mechanics of spelling, indentation, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization.
Writing Strategies
Students will link paragraphs into a cohesive structure.
Students will write for different purposes.
Students will write from different perspectives.
Students will use the writing process to prepare for publication.
Students will incorporate feedback from adults and peers through revising and editing.
Writing Responses
Students will write a summary of expository texts including the main topic, main ideas, and supporting details.
Students will respond to text through logs or journals.
This unit will include some of the experiences and perspectives of the Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Ho-Chunk, Stockbridge-Munsee, and Potawatomi of Wisconsin regarding their origins, lifestyles, values and beliefs, first contact with Europeans, and effects of this contact on their traditional lifestyle. The unit will incorporate critical thinking skills and the analysis of diverse viewpoints.
The First People Of Wisconsin: Background Knowledge
None of the Native Americans in Wisconsin or in North America subscribe to the theory that native people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait to North America. Each tribe usually has their own creation story as to how they came to be and their migrations, but all agree native people were created in North America.
What were the people's origins?
The Ho-Chunk was one of the original tribes living in Wisconsin. Some sources say the tribe originally lived in southeastern Wisconsin, then moved to the area around Green Bay. Recent Ho-Chunk sources state that the Ho-Chunk originally lived near the city of Green Bay and south and westward covering a good part of the state. According to Ho-Chunk oral traditions, the Red Banks, northeast of Green Bay, is the location of origin for the Ho-Chunk and all origin stories make reference to the area. By the late 1700s, Ho-Chunk villages were scattered around Lake Winnebago.
What was the tribe's traditional lifestyle?
The Ho-Chunk built chepotakay or roundhouses similar to wigwams for living in, made by bending saplings as a frame and covering with large strips of bark. All of these materials came from the wooded areas where the tribe lived. The roundhouses generally housed one family, likely the extended family because that was the primary social unit. Because the Ho-Chunk moved to obtain the food they needed, they left the wooden frame in place, and took the bark with them to cover the wigwam frame at their next location. In the spring, the Ho-Chunk collected maple sap, made maple sugar, and the men prepared ground for planting. In the summer, women grew foods in gardens such as corn (the most important crop), squash, and potatoes and collected foods grown wild. The men hunted and fished. Fishing went on year-round. In the fall, the people broke into small groups to harvest wild rice while men hunted, and in winter men hunted small animals and fished.
Women prepared the food grown, gathered, or hunted to eat and dried or smoked food to eat later. While men were engaged in winter hunting and fishing, women were making and repairing clothing and elders were often passing on the tribal history and values through story-telling. Everyone had to cooperate and share in order to meet their basic needs. Due to the interdependence among the people, the Ho-Chunk tended to be egalitarian and share power equally.
The Ho-Chunk were organized through clans with the children belonging to the clan of their fathers and could marry only outside their clan. Young children were cared for by women and elders. Elders were knowledgeable, wise, patient, and generous. Their advice was listened to and they were honored with gifts of food and material goods. After age seven, boys were taught by male family members how to hunt and fish. Girls remained with women and elders and taught how to care for the dwelling and the young, prepare hides for clothing, and learn the arts of basket making, weaving, and embroidery.
Clothing was made from skins and furs, especially deerskins. The women tanned the skins and sewed skins together. In summer, people dressed to stay cool. Women wore sleeveless dresses or wrap around skirts, leggings, and moccasins. Men wore breech cloths, leggings, and moccasins. In winter, they lined their moccasins with rabbit fur and wrapped themselves in heavy deer or bear fur robes. Men also wore shirts for warmth. Children wore clothing similar to the adults.
What were important values and beliefs?
The people were thankful for the plants and animals which enabled the people to live. People cannot own land or rivers. Each should take what is needed and gather no more than what can be used. Cooperation, communal sharing, and generosity were valued more than the accumulation of material goods.
What were the first relationships with Europeans and how did these affect the traditional lifestyle?
The first Europeans to encounter the Ho-Chunk were French fur traders. Fur traders wanted to obtain furs for clothing worn in Europe. Native Americans knew how to hunt to provide food and clothing for their tribes and already engaged in trading with one another for different goods. The native nations had followed a hunting ethic which required taking only what was needed for food and clothing. The pressure to hunt more heavily to provide furs for trade and obtain European goods in return led to the tribes' increased hunting and the eventual depletion of fur-bearing animals on the east coast.
The tribes accepted and used certain goods such as metal implements, cloth, firearms, glass beads, silver ornaments, and liquor. These materials led to changes in the nations' lifestyles. Metal kettles began to be used for cooking leading to the decline of making pottery or birchbark baskets for food preparation. Metal tools made it easier for native people to build canoes, process skins, hunt, fish, and farm. Firearms gradually were used more than bows and arrows. Men began to spend more time hunting for furs to exchange rather than for self-sufficiency and moved further away from their homes. The availability of trade cloth, glass beads, and silk ribbons through trade led to the women's integration of these materials in the creation of clothing utilizing traditional designs.
Generally, the relationship between the French fur traders and tribes in Wisconsin was good. A number of French traders tried to understand native culture. They lived part of the time in native villages, learned tribal languages and customs, and adopted some of the native lifestyle. If they married native women, they usually provided for their relatives and were incorporated into the tribes. This good relationship led to the Ho-Chunk siding with the French in the French and Indian War, which was fought between the British and French for control of the fur trade. The Ho-Chunk eventually accepted British traders, even though they were less generous than the French in gift giving, more arrogant, and less respectful in their interactions with native people. During the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, the Ho-Chunk fought on the side of the British. Native populations diminished during the fur trade era due to European diseases and deaths from wars.
What were the people's origins?
The Menominee was one of the original tribes living in Wisconsin, living in the eastern half of Wisconsin, especially around the mouth of the Menominee River.
What was the tribe's traditional lifestyle?
The Menominee built wiikiops (wih-key-ups) similar to wigwams for living in. The summer home was a rectangular cabin covered with elm or cedar bark which was easy to remove from the trees. Tall poles were used for the frame and tied together. The summer lodge was open and airy. The winter home was built from bent poles to create a dome shaped dwelling. The poles were then covered with large strips of bark. A fire was built inside for warmth, with a hole in the ceiling for smoke to escape. A circle of stones was placed around the fire which heated up and kept the home warm throughout the night. All of these materials came from the wooded areas where the tribe lived. The wiikiops generally housed one family, likely the extended family because that was the primary social unit. Because the Menominee moved to obtain the food they needed, they left the wooden frame in place, and took the bark with them to cover the wigwam frame at their next location. In the spring, the Menominee collected maple sap, made maple sugar, and the men prepared ground for planting. In the summer, women grew foods in gardens such as corn, squash, and potatoes and collected foods grown wild. The men hunted and fished. Fishing went on year-round. In the fall, the people broke into small groups to harvest wild rice while men hunted, and in winter men hunted small animals and fished.
Women prepared the food grown, gathered, or hunted to eat and dried or smoked food to eat later. While men were engaged in winter hunting and fishing, women were making and repairing clothing and elders were often passing on the tribal history and values through story-telling. Everyone had to cooperate and share in order to meet their basic needs. Due to the interdependence among the people, the Menominee tended to be egalitarian and share power equally.
The Menominee were organized through clans with the children belonging to the clan of their fathers and could marry only outside their clan. Young children were cared for by women and elders. Elders were knowledgeable, wise, patient, and generous. Their advice was listened to and they were honored with gifts of food and material goods. After age seven, boys were taught by male family members how to hunt and fish. Girls remained with women and elders and taught how to care for the dwelling and the young, prepare hides for clothing, and learn the arts of basket making, weaving, and embroidery.
Clothing was made from skins and furs, especially deerskins. The women tanned the skins and sewed skins together. In summer, people dressed to stay cool. Women wore sleeveless dresses or wrap around skirts, leggings, and moccasins. Men wore breech cloths, leggings, and moccasins. In winter, they lined their moccasins with rabbit fur and wrapped themselves in heavy deer or bear fur robes. Men also wore shirts for warmth. Children wore clothing similar to the adults.
What were important values and beliefs?
The people were thankful for the plants and animals which enabled the people to live. Cooperation, communal sharing, and generosity were valued more than the accumulation of material goods. The elderly were respected and listened to.
What were the first relationships with Europeans and how did these affect the traditional lifestyle?
The first Europeans to encounter the Menominee were French fur traders. Fur traders wanted to obtain furs for clothing worn in Europe. Native Americans knew how to hunt to provide food and clothing for their tribes and already engaged in trading with one another for different goods. The native nations had followed a hunting ethic which required taking only what was needed for food and clothing. The pressure to hunt more heavily to provide furs for trade and obtain European goods in return led to the tribes' increased hunting and the eventual depletion of fur-bearing animals on the east coast.
The tribes accepted and used certain goods such as metal implements, cloth, firearms, glass beads, silver ornaments, and liquor. These materials led to changes in the nations' lifestyles. Metal kettles began to be used for cooking leading to the decline of making pottery or birchbark baskets for food preparation. Metal tools made it easier for native people to build canoes, process skins, hunt, fish, and farm. Firearms gradually were used more than bows and arrows. Men began to spend more time hunting for furs to exchange rather than for self-sufficiency and moved further away from their homes. The availability of trade cloth, glass beads, and silk ribbons through trade led to the women's integration of these materials in the creation of clothing utilizing traditional designs.
Generally, the relationship between the French fur traders and tribes in Wisconsin was good. A number of French traders tried to understand native culture. They lived part of the time in native villages, learned tribal languages and customs, and adopted some of the native lifestyle. If they married native women, they usually provided for their relatives and were incorporated into the tribes. This good relationship led to the Menominee siding with the French in the French and Indian War, which was fought between the British and French for control of the fur trade. The Menominee eventually accepted British traders, even though they were less generous than the French in gift giving, more arrogant, and less respectful in their interactions with native people. During the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, the Menominee fought on the side of the British. Native populations diminished during the fur trade era due to European diseases and deaths from wars.
What were the people's origins?
The Ojibwa originally lived near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, but migrated west until they finally settled on Madeline Island, just off the northern tip of Wisconsin. Several Ojibwa bands moved into Wisconsin during the 1600s.
What was the tribe's traditional lifestyle?
The Ojibwa women worked together and built wigwams for living in by bending saplings as a frame and covering with large strips of bark. All of these materials came from the wooded areas where the tribe lived. The wigwams generally housed one family, likely the extended family because that was the primary social unit. Family members were assigned spaces to put their bedding and other personal belongings. The floor was covered with cedar boughs and rush mats with cooking fires built at the center. Because the Ojibwa had a migratory lifestyle and moved to obtain the food they needed, they left the wooden frame in place, and took the bark with them to cover the wigwam frame at their next location. In the spring, the Ojibwa often built peaked lodges made by placing a long ridge pole at the top of a pole frame and then covering with sheets of birchbark. These were the dwellings at the sugar camp when they collected maple sap, made maple sugar, and the men prepared ground for planting. In the summer, women built rectangular elm bark houses or summer wigwams, grew foods in gardens such as corn, squash, and beans, and collected foods grown wild. The men hunted and fished. Fishing went on year-round. In the fall, the people broke into small groups to harvest wild rice while men hunted, and in winter men hunted small animals and fished.
Women prepared the food grown, gathered, or hunted to eat and dried or smoked food to eat later. While men were engaged in winter hunting and fishing, women were making and repairing clothing and elders were often passing on the tribal history and values through story-telling. Everyone had to cooperate and share in order to meet their basic needs. Due to the interdependence among the people, The Ojibwa tended to be egalitarian and share power equally.
The Ojibwa were organized through clans with the children belonging to the clan of their fathers and could marry only outside their clan. Young children were cared for by women and elders. Babies were carried about on a cradleboard and slept in a tiny hammock. Elders were knowledgeable, wise, patient, and generous. Their advice was listened to and they were honored with gifts of food and material goods. After age seven, boys were taught by male family members how to hunt and fish. Girls remained with women and elders and taught how to care for the dwelling and the young, prepare hides for clothing, and learn the arts of basket making, weaving, and embroidery.
Clothing was made from skins and furs, especially deerskins. The women tanned the skins and sewed skins together. In summer, people dressed to stay cool. Women wore sleeveless dresses or wrap around skirts, leggings, and moccasins. Men wore breech cloths, leggings, and moccasins. In winter, they lined their moccasins with rabbit fur and wrapped themselves in heavy deer or bear fur robes. Men also wore shirts for warmth. Children wore clothing similar to the adults.
What were important values and beliefs?
The people were thankful for the plants and animals which enabled the people to live. Cooperation, communal sharing, and generosity were valued more than the accumulation of material goods. The elderly were respected and listened to.
What were the first relationships with Europeans and how did these affect the traditional lifestyle?
The first Europeans to encounter the Ojibwa were French fur traders. Fur traders wanted to obtain furs for clothing worn in Europe. Native Americans knew how to hunt to provide food and clothing for their tribes and already engaged in trading with one another for different goods. The native nations had followed a hunting ethic which required taking only what was needed for food and clothing. The pressure to hunt more heavily to provide furs for trade and obtain European goods in return led to the tribes' increased hunting and the eventual depletion of fur-bearing animals on the east coast.
The tribes accepted and used certain goods such as metal implements, cloth, firearms, glass beads, silver ornaments, and liquor. These materials led to changes in the nations' lifestyles. Metal kettles began to be used for cooking leading to the decline of making pottery or birchbark baskets for food preparation. Metal tools made it easier for native people to build canoes, process skins, hunt, fish, and farm. Firearms gradually were used more than bows and arrows. Men began to spend more time hunting for furs to exchange rather than for self-sufficiency and moved further away from their homes. The availability of trade cloth, glass beads, and silk ribbons through trade led to the women's integration of these materials in the creation of clothing utilizing traditional designs.
Generally, the relationship between the French fur traders and tribes in Wisconsin was good. A number of French traders tried to understand native culture. They lived part of the time in native villages, learned tribal languages and customs, and adopted some of the native lifestyle. If they married native women, they usually provided for their relatives and were incorporated into the tribes. This good relationship led to the Ojibwa siding with the French in the French and Indian War, which was fought between the British and French for control of the fur trade. The Ojibwa eventually accepted British traders, even though they were less generous than the French in gift giving, more arrogant, and less respectful in their interactions with native people. During the Revolutionary War, the Ojibwa remained neutral. Native populations diminished during the fur trade era due to European diseases and deaths from wars.
What were the people's origins?
The Potawatomi people were part of a huge group of Indians living along the gulf of the St. Lawrence River near the Atlantic Ocean. This group called themselves "Neshnabe," or "original people." The Neshnabe were created by Gitchie Manito--the Great Miracle. The Megis Shell, a sacred shell, was the guide for the migration of the people. Each time the Megis Shell appeared to them, the Neshnabe moved. As they moved, three groups began to emerge, the Ottawa, the Ojibwa, and the Potawatomi who were charged with "keeping of the fire." When the Neshnabe reached Sault Saint Marie in Michigan, they split into two groups. The Ottawa and Potawatomi moved down into the lower peninsula of Michigan settling on the lands there and building villages. By 1641 the Potawatomi moved out of Michigan into Wisconsin, at first settling on the Door Peninsula.
What was the tribe's traditional lifestyle?
The Potawatomi built dome-shaped homes called wigwams. Their lifestyle was affected by the four seasons. Each season they moved and built villages. In the summer they moved to areas good for farming. In the winter they moved to good hunting grounds in sheltered valleys to keep out the winter weather. In the spring, they often traveled south to hunt buffalo. Fishing went on each season. Women frequently were in charge of farming, cooking, and creating clothing while men were in charge of hunting, fishing, and protecting the village. They cooperated in making canoes and moving. The activities of both genders were respected and each gender governed its own sphere.
By 1800, the Potawatomi grew in numbers in spread out into a larger area. They lived in over 50 villages spread along the Mississippi River, south to northern Illinois and east into northern Indiana and southern Michigan.
The nuclear family was the economic unit; the extended family supported the nuclear family and its tasks. The clan organization governed external relationships of the family, from marriage to politics. One had to marry outside one's clan. Members of the clans were related through the male family members. Villages usually consisted of many different clans. Decisions were made communally and power shared equally among women and men. The extended family, especially the elders, contributed significantly to the socialization of children.
What were important values and beliefs?
Mother Earth was to be respected for providing all that the Potawatomi needed for living. All living things should live in harmony with one another, including plants and animals. All tribes are brothers because they are part of Mother Earth; therefore it is important to get along with others. Children should not be punished for negative behaviors, but taught through example and imitation of adult activities. Elders are to be respected and listened to. Generosity and communal sharing is more important than accumulation of material goods.
What were the first relationships with Europeans and how did these affect the traditional lifestyle?
The Potawatomi engaged in fur trading with the French by the middle of the 1600s. The Potawatomi provided furs and received iron tools and cooking utensils, glass beads, cloth blankets, and firearms from French fur traders. During the fur trade era, the Potawatomi modified their lifestyle by engaging in more hunting for furs rather than hunting for survival. Metal kettles began to be used for cooking leading to the decline of making pottery or birchbark baskets for food preparation. Metal tools made it easier for native people to build canoes, process skins, hunt, fish, and farm. Firearms gradually were used more than bows and arrows. These two groups developed a good relationship; many Frenchmen married Indian women. The Potawatomi helped the French in wars against the Iroquois, Fox, and Mascouten as well as against the British who were trying to take over the area and control the fur trade.
However, the British succeeded in taking over the area and controlling the fur trade completely by 1760 (after the French and Indian War). The Potawatomi tried to get along with British after the French were forced from the area. When the colonists fought with the British during the Revolutionary War, the Potawatomi sided and fought with the British since they had developed a good relationship. They again sided with the British in the British attempt to gain control of the U.S. during the War of 1812.
As with other tribes in Wisconsin, the Potawatomi suffered from these wars and European diseases which reduced the numbers of the people.
What were the people's origins?
The Oneida were part of the Iroquois Confederacy, an organization of five nations (the Mohawks, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, the Senecas, and the Oneidas) who lived close to one another in the areas now known as New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, agreed not to fight against each other, and make decisions which affected the Confederacy. The five nations had similar lifestyles, social and political organizations, clothing, and art. The Oneida lived in the area now known as the state of New York until 1820 when a group moved to Wisconsin.
What was the tribe's traditional lifestyle?
The Oneida lived in relatively permanent dwellings of longhouses for a period of 10 to 15 years. They obtained food through fishing, hunting, and gardening, and moved when the soil was exhausted and the fish and game population diminished. The longhouses were 50 to 150 feet in length and made from logs and bark which housed several families all belonging to the same clan. Members of the clans were related through the female family members. Senior women were clan leaders and chose the men to serve as chiefs and represent the nation at confederacy meetings.
The social life of the families sharing a longhouse took place in the long hallway down the center. Fires were built for cooking and light at night. Individual families had compartments built on wooden platforms above the ground which could be curtained off with skins for privacy at night. Above platforms for sleeping were platforms for storing cooking utensils, clothes, hunting equipment, and other possessions.
Young children were cared for by women and elders. Elders were knowledgeable, wise, patient, and generous. Their advice was listened to and they were honored with gifts of food and material goods. After age seven, boys were taught by male family members how to hunt and fish. Girls remained with women and elders and taught how to care for the dwelling and the young, prepare hides for clothing, and learn the arts of basket making, weaving, and embroidery.
Clothing was made from skins and furs, especially deerskins. The women tanned the skins and sewed skins together. In summer, people dressed to stay cool. Women wore sleeveless dresses or wrap around skirts, leggings, and moccasins. Men wore breech cloths, leggings, and moccasins. In winter, they lined their moccasins with rabbit fur and wrapped themselves in heavy deer or bear fur robes. Men also wore shirts for warmth. Children wore clothing similar to the adults.
What were important values and beliefs?
The people were thankful for the plants and animals which enabled the people to live. Cooperation, communal sharing, and generosity were valued more than the accumulation of material goods. The elderly were respected and listened to.
What were the first relationships with Europeans and how did these affect the traditional lifestyle?
The first Europeans to encounter the Oneida were Dutch fur traders. Fur traders wanted to obtain furs for clothing worn in Europe. Native Americans knew how to hunt to provide food and clothing for their tribes and already engaged in trading with one another for different goods. The native nations had followed a hunting ethic which required taking only what was needed for food and clothing. The pressure to hunt more heavily to provide furs for trade and obtain European goods in return led to the tribes' increased hunting and the eventual depletion of fur-bearing animals on the east coast.
The tribes accepted and used certain goods such as metal implements, cloth, firearms, glass beads, silver ornaments, and liquor. These materials led to changes in the nations' lifestyles. Metal kettles began to be used for cooking leading to the decline of making pottery or birchbark baskets for food preparation. Metal tools made it easier for native people to build canoes, process skins, hunt, fish, and farm. Firearms gradually were used more than bows and arrows. Men began to spend more time hunting for furs to exchange rather than for self-sufficiency and moved further away from their homes. The availability of trade cloth, glass beads, and silk ribbons through trade led to the women's integration of these materials in the creation of clothing utilizing traditional designs. For the Oneida especially during the fur trade era, their clothing began to show more European influence with cloth gradually replacing skins.
During the French and Indian War, the Oneida tribes fought on the side of the British for control of the fur trade while other nations in the Iroquois Confederation fought on the side of the French. This difference led to a distancing of the Oneidas within the confederacy. During the Revolutionary War, some of the Oneida fought for the British and some for the colonists which contributed to divisions within the tribe and the eventual movement of a group of Oneidas to Wisconsin in 1820. Native populations diminished during the fur trade era due to European diseases and deaths from wars.
What were the people's origins?
Mohican history records a great people came from the north and west. They crossed the waters where the lands almost touched (this is likely around the Great Lakes area). The people lived on these lands for many years and built settlements which they left behind when they moved on. They were looking for a place where the waters were never still, like the land of their origins. After a long journey, the people settled in the east. They divided into different groups and dialects. The oldest of these, the Muh-he-con-ne-ok or Mohicans, lived along the Muh-he-con-ne-tuk, later called Hudson's River. The waters of this river are never still because of the tides' influence. The Mohicans lived there, forming the great Mohican Confederacy, for several hundred years before the arrival of Europeans.
The Stockbridge Indians were originally part of the Mohican Confederacy. They lived on lands in what is now known as New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The Munsee were part of the Delaware Confederacy. They lived east and west of the Delaware River in what is now known as Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. Both the Munsee and the Mohicans or Stockbridge lived in the same general area, so easily became one tribe.
After more and more Europeans settled on the east coast, the Stockbridge were pushed from their land and first relocated in New Stockbridge in New York to live close to the Oneida. Several land companies wanted the State of New York to force the Native people out so they could profit from land sales, so the Stockbridge leader led the group to the White River area in what is now known as Indiana to live with the Miami and Delaware. By the time the Stockbridge arrived, the Delaware had been forced to sell their land. The State of New York negotiated with the Menominee and Winnebago for land to relocate Indians there, including the Stockbridge. In 1834 the Stockbridge moved to land east of Lake Winnebago in what became Wisconsin and were later joined by Munsee families to form the Stockbridge and Munsee Indians. They eventually moved to the present reservation in Shawano County in 1856.
What was the tribe's traditional lifestyle?
Both the Mohicans and Munsee lived in forested areas and built their homes near rivers so they could obtain water and food easily. Their village homes were wigwams and were circular and made of bent saplings covered with hides or bark. They also built longhouses for homes 50 to 150 feet long with curved roofs shingled with elm bark. Although the longhouses had no windows, they built smoke holes every 20 feet. Many families lived in each longhouse.
In the spring, the women planted gardens and the men fished by paddling dugout and bark canoes to spear or net herring and shad in nearby rivers. In late summer or fall, men hunted animals in the woods. After the harvest, they stored dried meat, vegetables, and smoked fish in pits dug deep in the ground and lined with grass or bark. During the winter, the people made utensils and containers, repaired hunting gear and tools, and made pottery. Women made clothing and blankets from hide and decorated with porcupine quills, shells, and other objects from nature. When the food supply dwindled, the man traveled by snowshoe to hunt game. In the spring, the women made maple sugar and began planting while men fished. The activities of women and men were equally valued the people lived in harmony with the seasons. They found everything they needed came from Mother Earth.
Women created clothing from animal skins, primarily tanned deer hides. These were made into dresses and leggings for the women and breechcloths and leggings for the men decorated with wampum or shells and porcupine quills. Leggings protected the legs. Moccasins were also made from one piece of animal skin, with soft soles.
What were important values and beliefs?
The Mohicans and Munsee believed in the importance of sharing for the survival of all tribal members. They also believed in living in harmony with nature since nature provided all the people needed for survival. Elders were respected and listened to.
What were the first relationships with Europeans and how did these affect the traditional lifestyle?
The Mohicans first had contact with Europeans in 1609 when they encountered Henry Hudson, a Dutch trader, who was looking for beaver and otter furs. The Mohicans greeted him with curiosity and began trading furs. Unfortunately, as the fur trade grew, the Mohicans and Mohawks were in conflict over who was going to control the fur trade. The Mohicans were driven from their lands and perhaps settled near rivers in what are now the states of Connecticut and Massachusetts. As the number of fur-bearing animals decreased, there was an increase in the number of wars among tribes in the area for control of the fur trade. The fur trade led to changes in the Mohican lifestyle including the decline of making traditional crafts due to the availability of new goods through trade. Boundaries between tribes limited where they lived and hunted. The Mohicans became more dependent on European products rather than themselves and Mother Earth to provide their basic needs.
The English also changed the Mohican lifestyle through efforts to convert the Mohicans to Christianity and give up their own religion. Converting Native people to Christianity was part of the efforts Europeans used to "civilize" Native Americans. John Sergeant, a missionary, came to live with the Mohicans and was given permission to start a mission village, called Stockbridge, located in what is now Massachusetts. The people, both Mohican and Munsee Indians were now called Stockbridge Indians.
During the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, the Mohicans fought on the side of the colonists in the colonists' battle with the British over British rule in North America. Ironically these wars were over land taken from Native people. Nearly half of the Mohican men were killed in these wars and many villages completely destroyed. The Europeans also brought diseases such as smallpox and measles which led to greater deaths among Native people. During the late 1700s and early 1800s, the Stockbridge were forced to migrate west from their homelands due to pressure from increasing numbers of European settlers. They moved to New Stockbridge in New York. However, land companies pressured the New York state government to force the Stockbridge out so they could use their rich farm and timber lands. This led to the migration of Stockbridge to move first to Indiana and then to Wisconsin.
The contact with Europeans led to the disruption of the traditional way of life for the Mohicans. Their original ceremonies were replaced by Christian customs. Few people spoke the Mohican language, traditional dress was worn less frequently, and seasonal activities were abandoned. However, the arts of basket-making and silversmithing continued.
Activities
1. Provide opportunities for students to illustrate what they know about the topic prior to beginning the study in order to understand students' prior knowledge and questions they may have. For example, you may ask students to list everything they can think of when they hear the phrase "Wisconsin Indians." Follow up questions might be: What are the names of the tribes? What were their lives like before they discovered Europeans? How did they get the food, clothing, and shelter they needed? How did the tribes get to Wisconsin? How did they get along with the first Europeans they discovered? Students can create individual lists on K (Know), W (Want to Know), L (Learned) charts which can be compiled into class charts.
2. Students might also prepare concept maps to show what they already know about the six Wisconsin Native American tribes. Each main concept: origins, lifestyles, values and beliefs, and contact with first Europeans is placed in the middle of a piece of paper with words or phrases which come to mind related to the concept placed in a web design around the main concept. A class concept map could be created summarizing the students' ideas.
3. Students might divide a large piece of paper into four sections and draw what they understand about Wisconsin tribes' origins, lifestyles, values and beliefs, and contact with Europeans. Teachers could ask students to explain their drawings during a conference.
4. At intervals during the unit, students add what they are learning to the L portion of the chart so that by the end, the chart provides a brief summary of what they learned.
5. Students may complete another concept map or drawing to illustrate their new understandings of the Wisconsin tribes at the end of the unit.
Origins Of Wisconsin Native Americans
1. Encourage students to speculate on how the six tribes in Wisconsin might have come to exist. Have students discuss possibilities with a partner or small group. Then have students read, illustrate, and discuss the meanings of the creation stories of the different tribes. See Keepers of the Fire: The History of the Potawatomi Indians of Wisconsin, The History of the Menominee Indians, The History of the Hochungra People: Winnebago Tribe of Wisconsin, The Anishinabe: An Overview Unit of the History and Background of the Wisconsin Ojibway Indian Tribe, The History of the Stockbridge Munsee Band of Mohican Indians (second edition), and The History of the Oneida Indians for the stories and chapters 3-8 of Native People of Wisconsin. Another version of the Anishinabe (or Ojibwa) creation story and migration is found in The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway, A Mishomis Book: A History-Coloring Book of the Ojibway Indians. Book 1: The Ojibway Creation Story, The Ojibwa (by McCarthy) and The Good Path: Ojibwe Learning and Activity Book for Kids. A description of the prophecies which included the migration of the Ojibway both east and west is included in The Seven Fires: An Ojibway Prophecy. Additional versions of the Ho-Chunk creation stories and the people's migration into the Great Lakes area are included in part one of Folklore of the Winnebago Tribe. The video Ho Chunk Stories (31 minutes in length) provides new evidence that the Ho Chunk or Winnebago ancestors were effigy mound builders and rock artists, proving they have lived in Wisconsin as early as 350 A. D. Other renditions of the Potawatomi creation story and the migration to Wisconsin are included in chapters 1 and 2 of The Potawatomi (Clifton) and the “Introduction” and “History” chapters of The Potawatomi (Powell). Additional versions of the Iroquois or Oneida creation story include the picture books The Woman Who Fell from the Sky, The Oneida (by McLester and Torres) and Skywoman: Legends of the Iroquois. For another version of the Menominee creation story, see The Menominee by Fowler. Discuss how these stories differ from the Bering Strait Theory of the origins of native people which asserts that Native American ancestors migrated from Asia to what is now Alaska over a land bridge, the Bering Strait, which no longer exists. These people eventually spread out all over North and South America and developed into current Native American tribes. Discuss the values of these different native nations which the creation stories encompass.
2. Ask students to locate and mark the origins of each Wisconsin tribe on a U.S. map, then trace the migration routes for the Ojibwa, Potawatomi, and Oneida as they moved west into Wisconsin. See The Good Path: Ojibwe Learning and Activity Book for Kids for an explanation of the Lenni Lenape as the Ojibwa’s ancestors and the Ojibwa’s westward migration the area around the St. Lawrence River on the east coast to Madeline Island. For substantial background information on the factors contributing to Oneida’s loss of land in New York and a group of Oneida moving to Wisconsin, see The Oneida Indian Journey: From New York to Wisconsin 1784–1860.
3. Request students to compare and contrast maps showing the original lands of the Wisconsin tribes with maps showing reservation areas and communities today. Lead a discussion on these questions: What differences do you notice? Why might these differences have occurred?
4. Invite students to prepare a timeline showing when the tribes moved to or lived in Wisconsin.
5. Introduce students to the video "Reflections of the Indians of Wisconsin" (20 minutes) focusing on how and when the six tribes came to Wisconsin. The video also contains current economic and social/cultural activities of the tribes which could be viewed or omitted. Individually, with partners, and with the class, have students summarize what they learned from the video.
6. Encourage students to explore the roles John W. Quinney and Electa Quinney served in helping the Stockbridge-Munsee people in their migration to Wisconsin? See the teaching picture for John W. Quinney in the classroom poster set Advocates for Change and the section on Electa Quinney (page 2) in Uncommon Lives of Common Women. John Quinney led the Stockbridge-Munsee Native Americans from New York to their first location in Wisconsin while Electa Quinney served as a teacher for Stockbridge-Munsee children in both New York and Wisconsin.
Lifestyles Of Wisconsin Native Americans
1. Show students photographs of the physical environment of Wisconsin (see texts From Sea to Shining Sea: Wisconsin and Wisconsin: A Picture Book to Remember Her By for examples of photographs). Encourage students to observe the photographs carefully and think about how the tribes might survive in this physical environment. What food might they eat? What materials would they use to make their dwellings and clothing? Students individually should list ideas, then share ideas with a partner or small group, then discuss as a total class. For a brief written description of the physical area around Lake Winnebago and the paths Native people traveled around the lake, read aloud the brief descriptions “Before the Plow” and “Prehistoric Trails” from the booklet A Proud Heritage: History of Native Americans East Shore of Lake Winnebago.
2. Assign students to work in small groups to make a chart or diagram summarizing the housing, food, clothing, transportation, and the roles for women, men, and children for one of the tribes so that each tribe is represented. Compare and contrast the lifestyles of the different tribes. Speculate on reasons for similarities and differences (physical environment, clan organization, or proximity to other native nations). The importance of water for transportation and food is described in chapters 2 and 6 in Working with Water: Wisconsin Waterways. A good teacher resource for the traditional lifestyle of each tribe is Native American Communities in Wisconsin 1600-1960: A Study of Tradition and Change. Teachers might also consult chapter 6 “Corn as a Cultural Center of the Haudenosaunee Way of Life” in Iroquois Corn in a Culture-Based Curriculum: A Framework for Respectfully Teaching about Cultures for a description of traditional life among the Iroquois (including the Oneida) prior to contact with Europeans and The Oneida Indian Journey: From New York to Wisconsin 1784–1860, especially chapter 4 for a description of traditional Oneida life during the 19th century. See the individual curriculum guides for each tribe published by the American Indian Language and Culture Education Board for resources, pp. 1-9 from Visions and Voices: Winnebago Elders Speak to the Children, the children’s book Mountain Wolf Woman: A Ho-Chunk Girlhood (Holliday), chapter 1 from The Potawatomi (Clifton) and the chapters focusing on “Food,” “Clothing,” “Transportation,” and “Dwellings” from The Potawatomi (Powell), the picture books The Menominee by Fowler, The Ojibwa (by McCarthy), and The Oneida (by McLester and Torrees), chapter 3 from The Iroquois, and the texts People of the Longhouse: How the Iroquoian Tribes Lived and The Iroquois: A First Americans Book. The Good Path: Ojibwe Learning and Activity Book for Kids, chapters 3 and 6, provide a description of the seasonal Ojibwa seasonal lifestyle. Picture books from the series Native Nations of North American provide valuable illustrations and text appropriate for students dealing with Native nations’ traditional lifestyle, cultural values, and roles of women, men, children, and elders. See Life in a longhouse village by Kalman, Life in an Anishinabe camp by Walker, Native nations of the western Great Lakes by Smithyman and Kalman, and chapters 3-8 of Native People of Wisconsin.
Emphasize the importance of women among the Iroquois nations, including the Oneida. See chapter 3 "Iroquois Women and the Village World" in The Tried and the True: Native American Women Confronting Colonization and the texts People of the Longhouse: How the Iroquoian Tribes Lived, The Iroquois: A First Americans Book, and Sisters in Spirit: Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Influence on Early American Feminists. The legend “Jikonsahseh, Mother of Nations” from Skywoman: Legends of the Iroquois explains how clanmothers’ role of selecting and deposing leaders among the Iroquois came to be. For a portrayal of how Hochunk women learned food preparation, basketry, weaving mats, beading, and becoming strong women from their mothers and grandmothers, show the video Her Mother Before Her: Winnebago Women's Stories of Their Mothers and Grandmothers (19 minutes).
3. For more advanced readers to gain additional knowledge about the traditional Iroquois lifestyle, housing, clothing, recreation, roles of women, men, boys, and girls, beliefs, and values before contact with Europeans, encourage them to read the novel Children of the Longhouse. Emphasize that the text is a novel, so some parts are fictional, but is based on a Mohawk village of the late 15th century.
4. Show students the video Native Americans: People of the Forest (24 minutes), which portrays the historical re-enactment of Ojibwa family/village life before contact with Europeans. The main character Little Flower complains about the limitations of traditional activities for girls and desires to hunt as boys do. Ask students to summarize what they learned about building wigwams, making birchbark baskets, cooking, trapping, fishing, healing sick family members, and playing games from the video. Invite students to respond to Little Flower’s complaints that boys get to do more enjoyable tasks while girls must work and support their responses with reasons for the importance of each activity.
5. Allow students to explore freely and discuss with each other drawings or pictures (without captions) of native people's activities to learn more about the lifestyle of the Wisconsin tribes. Then have students draw and write about what they learned from the pictures. Sources for pictures include Ojibway Indians Coloring Book, Woodland Indians of Wisconsin (folder of drawings and copied photographs with brief explanations), and Classroom Activities on Wisconsin Indian Treaties and Tribal Sovereignty. See History Workshop for a more comprehensive approach to this activity.
6. Lead students in analyzing drawings or pictures of native people's activities without captions through inquiry. Sources for pictures include Ojibway Indians Coloring Book, Woodland Indians of Wisconsin (folder of drawings and copied photographs with brief explanations), and Classroom Activities on Wisconsin Indian Treaties and Tribal Sovereignty which illustrate growing, hunting, and gathering food; preparing and preserving food; building canoes; making tools and containers; and preparing clothing. This activity encourages students to observe carefully, speculate, use background knowledge and any other clues to respond to the questions. This activity also stimulates interest in learning more about the activities portrayed in the pictures. Develop such inquiry questions as:
What seems to be happening in the picture?
Who seems to be engaging in the activity?
Why are the people engaged in this activity?
What tools and materials are the people using?
What skills do the people need to complete the activity?
What does this picture tell you about the values, beliefs, and/or lifestyle of the people portrayed?
7. Persuade students to create a booklet illustrating with drawings and words the seasonal lifestyle of each tribe. Draw and explain the different activities each tribe engages in each season. Resources showing seasonal characteristics of all Woodland tribes include chapters 3-8 of Native People of Wisconsin and the September, 1974 Prehistoric Indians issue of Badger History. Learning from the Land: Wisconsin Land Use provides a brief description of the seasonal lifestyle of the Ojibwa, Menominee, and Ho-Chunk prior to discovering Europeans on pp. 19-20. See the individual curriculum guides for each tribe published by the American Indian Language and Culture Education Board for resources. For the Ho-Chunk see Woodland Indians cassette tapes. For the Ojibway, see the Ojibway Indians Coloring Book, Ojibway Family Life in Minnesota: 20th Century Sketches, The Good Path: Ojibwe Learning and Activity Book for Kids, the article “In the Cycle of the Four Seasons” in the November, 1998 issue of Cobblestone magazine, the fall, 2001 Masinaigan Supplement Growing Up Ojibwe (available from the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission), the videos Enduring Ways of the Lac du Flambeau People and Preserving the Harvest (30 minutes), the illustrations from the Ojibwa legend Peboan and Seegwun and Woodland Indians cassette tapes for seasonal activities. An adult resource for the Ojibway seasonal lifestyle is Paths of the People: The Ojibwe in the Chippewa Valley. For the Potawatomi see chapter 1 in The Potawatomi.
8. After studying the seasonal lifestyle of each Native nation, encourage students to speculate the Ojibwa names for the months of the year, based on the important activities of the seasons. Introduce the English terms they may use as well as the Ojibwa terms. See Activity 2: Ojibwa Seasonal Calendar (pages 27-34) from Learning from the Land: Wisconsin Land Use Teacher’s Guide and Student Materials.
9. Read aloud or encourage students to read aloud Celebrating Summer and The Fall Gathering, simple picture books illustrating preparing for a powwow in the summer and sharing harvested foods in the fall. Celebrating Summer provides some background knowledge on powwows and items of clothing worn for dancing in powwows, The Fall Gathering portrays the significance of native people sharing food, giving thanks, and respecting elders. Different foods which native people harvested are also included. Encourage students to describe what they learned about Wisconsin Native American lifestyles from the texts.
10. Read aloud the Ojibwa legend Shingebiss: An Ojibwe Legend, which explains how Shingebiss, a merganser duck learned to fish in winter to stay alive. Ask students to listen for descriptions of Ojibwa life and their physical environment before discovering Europeans. Especially encourage students to listen for how Shingebiss taught the Ojibwa how to fish in winter when the surface of Lake Superior froze. Students should notice how Ojibwa lived in wigwams close to Lake Superior and fished for food. After discussing the legend, read the introduction which explains the purpose of legends for Ojibwa people.
11. Read aloud or encourage students to read The Birth of Nanabosho, Manabozho and the Bullrushes and Grandfather Drum. The Birth of Nanabosho explains that Nanabosho is a great teacher who helps the Objiwa people and his stories explain how things came to be or provide humorous stories of tricks. This first book clarifies why the Ojibwa greet each other with “Bosho” and why they treat all beings and objects with respect. The last two books contain legends about Nanaboozhoo, an Ojibwa hero and trickster. In Grandfather Drum the author explains that stories are only to be told in the winter when Mother Earth prepares for a long sleep and the animals are hibernating. The text contains the story of “Nanaboozhoo miinwaa Ko Ko Ko” or “Nanaboozhoo and the Owl” which tells how Nanaboozhoo saved his people from the owl’s bad magic and caused the owl to be able to turn its head around without turning its body. In Manabozho and the Bullrushes the author shows a foolish side of the hero who dances all night with bullrushes rather than the people he was trying to impress with his fine dancing. Encourage students to describe important characteristics of this hero and what lessons Ojibwa people were trying to teach their children through these stories.
12. Encourage students to work together to create a classroom display depicting the seasonal lifestyle of each tribe. Use pictures, drawings, objects, and words to illustrate the main activities for each season.
13. Lead students in discussing ways the six Native American nations adapted to their physical environment in their everyday life. How did they use all parts of animals, plants, and stones in their physical environment? How might the native people have developed the knowledge and skills to live in their physical environment? What values and beliefs might the native people have in order to develop such a lifestyle? Discuss the value and drawbacks of such adaptation. Consult the September, 1974 Prehistoric Indian issue of Badger History and The Seven Fires: An Ojibway Prophecy for background information. The Seven Fires emphasizes the importance of Ojibway people living in harmony with plants, animals, and minerals due to the sacred teachings of the Creator. Amikoonse (Little Beaver) portrays the importance of people respecting the rights of animals to live with other animals like themselves rather than keeping them as pets. The chapter “Deer” in Our Stories Remember: American Indian History, Culture, and Values through Storytelling illustrates the importance of deer among eastern woodland Native people’s lives. Deer provided food and clothing necessary for survival. However, Native stories emphasize the importance of not taking more than one needed, not wasting the meat, and respecting the deer bones.